LESSON 2 IBL: INTERNATIONAL COMPANY LAW – EUROPEAN UNION FRAMEWORK
1 Companies and other bodies for the business organisation of International Business.
Companies and other organisations are central actors in international business law. Alongside natural persons, they serve as instruments that give legal form to business activity.
In particular, companies (also called corporations) and other business entities provide the legal framework for collective business ventures—those in which ownership and control are exercised by groups of individuals who must be organised according to law. These forms differ from individual business activity, where the legal holder is a single trader or entrepreneur.
Such organisations are recognised in law as legal persons. Unlike natural persons, they do not exist by nature but as intellectual constructs—legal fictions created to allow groups of individuals to cooperate. This notion has deep historical roots: already in medieval law and in early mercantile practice, jurists developed the idea of the universitas or collegium to explain how associations, guilds, and cities could act as a single entity in law.
Through this fiction, the law grants organisations a distinct legal personality, enabling them to own property, to enter into contracts, to appear in litigation, and to exercise governance functions regardless of the individuals who compose them.
- A fully incorporated company or organisation maintains its legal identity independently of the specific individuals who make up its membership or management. In other words, it continues to exist and operate according to the law regardless of changes in shareholders, directors, or other members. This principle is essential in business law, as it ensures that the company can enter into contracts, hold property, and be subject to legal obligations and rights in a stable and predictable manner, separate from the personal circumstances of its participants.
1.1 Different types of legal persons that are important in IBL
Building on the general concept of legal personality, international business law recognises a variety of organisational forms. Each of these entities embodies the legal fiction of personhood in its own way, shaped by its purpose, governance structure, and capital arrangements.
Partnerships, or sociedades de personas (sociedades colectivas), are usually classified as personalist entities. Their legal personality is closely tied to the identity of their members, who often assume unlimited liability and participate directly in management. This makes them suitable for professions or activities where personal trust among partners is decisive.
Corporations represent the opposite model: they are capitalist entities, in which the legal personality is detached from the individuals who provide the capital. Shareholders contribute funds but are not personally liable beyond their investment. This separation between ownership and management, reinforced by limited liability, makes corporations the predominant form for large-scale business.
Cooperatives occupy an intermediate ground. Their legal personality is designed to serve the collective interests of members, often balancing economic participation with social or community goals.
Foundations are distinct because they are not based on members but on a dedicated pool of assets organised for a specific purpose. In civil law systems, they enjoy legal personality as autonomous entities and (in the Spanish legal system) they must serve a general interest. A related institution in common law is the trust, which, though not a legal person in the strict sense, performs similar functions by separating legal ownership (trustee) from the beneficial interest (beneficiaries).
Associations represent voluntary groupings of individuals that acquire legal personality when recognized by law (ie, when they are registered in a public regristry for associations). Unlike partnerships, their aim is often non-profit, but in some jurisdictions, such as in Spain, associations may also engage in economic activity.
Another important distinction is that between incorporated and non-incorporated entities. Incorporated entities, such as corporations (Public Limited Companies or, in Spain, Sociedad Anónima), limited liability companies (in Spain, SL), or foundations, acquire legal personality through a formal act of incorporation and registration. They are registered in a public registry, enjoy separate patrimony, and can act as autonomous subjects of rights and obligations. Their existence does not depend on the continuity of their members, since the legal person persists even if ownership or management changes.
Non-incorporated entities, on the contrary, lack full legal personality or enjoy only a limited degree of recognition. Sociedades de personas (sociedades colectivas) and unregistered associations fall within this category. They may act collectively to some extent, but their legal standing is often derived from the direct responsibility of their members. In many systems (such as in Spain), the partners are personally liable for the obligations of the entity, and the organization may dissolve when a member withdraws.
The divide between incorporated and non-incorporated forms is fundamental in international business law. It reflects the balance between flexibility and formality, between personal responsibility and autonomous legal existence, and it explains why incorporated structures dominate in large-scale, capital-intensive activities, while non-incorporated ones remain common in small or trust-based ventures.
Let’s look at these figures one by one:
Foundations
- They have no members.
- They have no shareholding.
- They do not have issued capital, although they do have assets.
- Foundations are legal persons, composed of assets whose objectives are determined by their founder.
- Article 34.1 of the Spanish Constitution states: «The right of Foundation is recognized for purposes of general interest, in accordance with the law.» Therefore, in Spain, foundations are created to serve the general interest and not solely the interest of the founder or their family. Some countries, however, recognize private-purpose foundations.
Trusts (English law trusts)
- They are not legal persons in the strict sense, although they perform similar functions.
- They separate legal ownership of assets (held by the trustee) from the rights of the beneficiaries.
- Trusts allow the organization of assets for specific purposes, protecting property and controlling its use according to the settlor’s instructions.
- They are widely used in estate planning, investment management, and asset protection.
- Even without their own legal personality, trusts can sue and be sued through the trustee, and their existence is recognized by English law and other common law systems.
Associations
- They voluntarily group individuals for collective purposes, usually non-profit.
- They acquire legal personality when formally recognized by law or registered in an official registry.
- Members participate in management according to the statutes and internal rules of the association.
- In some jurisdictions, associations may also carry out economic activities, although their main purpose is usually social, cultural, or community-oriented.
- Legal liability varies; often, members are subsidiarily liable for the obligations of the association if it is not incorporated.
Companies
- Companies are legal persons created to organize collective business activity.
- They are usually classified into main types: personalist entities and capitalist entities, mutual organizations (such as cooperatives)
Personalist entities (partnerships / sociedades de personas / sociedades colectivas)
- Their legal personality is closely linked to the identity of their members.
- Members often assume unlimited liability and participate directly in management.
- They are suitable for businesses where personal trust and professional reputation are central.
- In many jurisdictions, these entities are often non-incorporated, meaning they lack full legal personality. The partners are directly responsible for the obligations of the entity.
Capitalist entities (corporations / sociedades capitalistas)
- Their legal personality is independent from their shareholders.
- Shareholders contribute capital but are not personally liable beyond their investment.
- Management and ownership are separate, allowing companies to scale and attract investors.
- Corporations are usually incorporated, registered in public registries, and enjoy perpetual existence regardless of changes in ownership.
Incorporated vs. Non-incorporated entities
- Incorporated entities, such as corporations, limited liability companies, and foundations, acquire legal personality through the formal process of incorporation. They have independent patrimony, can contract, own property, sue and be sued.
- Non-incorporated entities, such as unregistered partnerships and associations, have limited legal recognition. Their capacity to act collectively often depends on the direct responsibility of their members, and the entity may dissolve if a member leaves.
This classification helps understand why incorporated capitalist entities dominate large-scale and capital-intensive business, while personalist and non-incorporated forms remain common in smaller, trust-based, or professional ventures.
Companies (continued)
- Companies operate under specific legal frameworks that define their rights, obligations, and governance structures.
- They can own property, enter into contracts, borrow funds, and engage in litigation independently of their members.
- Governance is often structured through boards of directors or managers, separating decision-making from ownership in capitalist entities.
- Personalist entities, by contrast, usually involve direct participation of members in management and decision-making.
- The flexibility of company forms allows adaptation to different economic activities, from small partnerships to multinational corporations.
- In cross-border business, understanding the type of company is essential, because liability, capital requirements, and recognition of legal personality vary between jurisdictions.
Key features to consider in international business law:
- Liability of members: full (personalist entities) vs. limited (capitalist entities)
- Continuity of existence: dependent on members (personalist/non-incorporated) vs. perpetual (capitalist/incorporated)
- Governance model: direct involvement of members vs. delegated management
- Capital and asset structure: tied to members’ contributions vs. independent corporate patrimony
These characteristics determine the suitability of each company form for different business purposes, investment needs, and risk profiles in international commerce.
- Limited Partnerships: These entities combine general partners (with unlimited liability and management powers) and limited partners (whose liability is limited to their capital contribution).
- Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs): Allow all partners to participate in management while limiting their personal liability.
- Companies
- Companies are widely used in international business law and in business in general. They are legal persons created to organize collective business activity and provide a framework that separates the entity from its owners, enabling complex operations, capital accumulation, and continuity beyond individual members.
Non-Incorporated Companies
- Legal Personality: These companies have legal personality, but their members remain personally liable for the debts of the entity (“non-perfect legal personality”).
- Examples: Sociedad colectiva (general partnership), sociedad comanditaria simple (simple limited partnership), and equivalent forms in other countries.
- Capital: Although they possess assets, they lack capital in the strict legal and technical sense.
- Registration: In Spain, the contract for creating these types of companies must be registered in the Companies House (Registro Mercantil) for them to be classified as commercial (mercantiles), although they are classified as non-incorporated.
Incorporated Companies (Capital Companies / Corporations)
- Legal Personality: These companies acquire full legal personality through incorporation.
- Examples: Sociedad Anónima (S.A.), Sociedad Limitada (S.L.), and Sociedad Anónima Europea (SAE).
- Capital Contribution: They are created by founding members who contribute money or assets to form the company’s capital.
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Minimum Capital Requirements:
- Sociedad Anónima (S.A.): Requires a minimum capital of €60,000, with at least 25% paid up at the time of incorporation.
- Sociedad Limitada (S.L.): The minimum capital is, since 2022, of €1. (Until the capital reaches €3,000, the company must allocate 20% of its annual profits to a legal reserve until the total capital and reserve amount to €3,000). Additionally, in case of liquidation, if the company’s assets are insufficient to cover its obligations, the partners are jointly liable for the difference between the €3,000 minimum capital and the actual capital subscribed.
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Registration: Registration in the Companies House (Registro Mercantil) is a requisite for these entities to acquire full legal personality.
Personalist Entities (Partnerships / Sociedades de Personas)
- Legal Personality: Legal personality is closely linked to the members’ identities.
- Liability: Members often assume unlimited liability and participate directly in management.
- Suitability: Suitable for businesses where personal trust and professional reputation are central.
Capitalist Entities (Corporations / Sociedades Capitalistas)
- Legal Personality: Legal personality is independent from shareholders.
- Liability: Shareholders contribute capital but are not personally liable beyond their investment.
- Governance: Ownership and management are separate, enabling scalability and investment.
Hybrid Forms (in some countries, such as UK). These hybrid forms are often used in professional services, investment funds, and joint ventures, balancing trust-based relationships with capital protection.
1.2 More on incorporated «capital» companies in IBL
Nationality and Domicile of Companies
Companies have a nationality and a domicile, defined differently across legal systems:
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Real Seat Theory: Nationality is linked to where the company is managed (e.g., Germany).
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Incorporation Theory: Nationality is determined by the place of incorporation (e.g., UK).
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Spanish System: A hybrid. According to Arts. 8–10 LSC, a Spanish company has its registered office in Spain and must indicate its administrative or main operational center. Third parties may consider either domicile. Nationality and domicile determine the applicable legal system, legal capacity, and jurisdiction.
Legal Capacity to Act and Trade in Spain
Foreign companies and individuals can trade in Spain. Art. 15 Código de Comercio establishes that foreign entities follow their own nationality laws for contractual capacity but must comply with Spanish law regarding establishments and operations within Spain, subject to Spanish courts. Exceptions arise in international business contexts.
Groups of Companies
A group exists when legally independent companies are economically centralized under a parent company. Key features:
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Dependence relationships between companies.
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Centralized economic governance.
Comparative approaches:
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UK: Focuses on hierarchical control (“vertical groups”).
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Germany: Emphasizes unity of decision via agreements, cross-shareholding, or joint projects.
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Spain: Art. 42 Cco defines a group via majority voting rights or control over boards. Vertical groups must file consolidated accounts, non-vertical groups do not.
Comparative Company and Securities Law: USA vs. EU
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USA: Popular capitalism, state-regulated company law, federal securities law (SEC), soft law governance via ALI Principles, and ongoing legislative updates (Sarbanes-Oxley, Dodd-Frank).
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EU: Bank-centered funding, blockholders, variable board structures (single vs. dual), corporate governance influenced by soft law (Cadbury Code, Código Unificado de Buen Gobierno), harmonization via MIFID2, MIFIR, and supervision by ESMA, EBA, EIOPA.
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