Archivo de la categoría: Derecho de los Negocios Internacionales International Business Law. Grado Comercio Internacional

Sistema Internacional de Registro de Marcas. Madrid Monitor

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El Sistema de Madrid es un mecanismo centralizado para el registro y la gestión de las marcas en todo el mundo. Con una única solicitud, un idioma y una tasa se puede proteger la marca en hasta 97 miembros, de la OMPI. Se rige por el Arreglo de Madrid, adoptado en 1891, y el Protocolo concerniente a ese Arreglo, adoptado en 1989.

Contratos mercantiles, interpretación, buena fe, relatividad. Apunte.

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Unas notas de apoyo para clase.

La interpretación de los contratos mercantiles  se rige por lo dispuesto en el Cco y leyes mercantiles especiales, y en su defecto por lo dispuesto en derecho común. Art 50 Cco.- Los contratos mercantiles, en todo lo relativo a sus requisitos, modificaciones, excepciones, interpretación y extinción y a la capacidad de los contratantes, se regirán en todo lo que no se halle expresamente establecido en este Código o en Leyes especiales, por las reglas generales del Derecho común. (ver también aquí)

  • en materia mercantil se evitan las interpretaciones que  conduzcan a resultados contrarios a las exigencias del tráfico; Art 57 Cco Los contratos de comercio se ejecutarán y cumplirán de buena fe, según los términos en que fueren hechos y redactados, sin tergiversar con interpretaciones arbitrarias el sentido recto, propio y usual de las palabras dichas o escritas, ni restringir los efectos que naturalmente se deriven del modo con que los contratantes hubieren explicado su voluntad y contraído sus obligaciones.

 

  • jari2015Buena fe contractual (infracción)
    • STS 3627/2016 – ECLI:ES:TS:2016:3627 la infracción del principio de buena fe contractual ( artículo 1258 del Código Civil ) no sólo queda circunscrita a un comportamiento estrictamente doloso ( actio doli), ….sino que, además, dicha infracción del principio de buena fe también resulta comprensiva de todas aquellas conductas que aun sin contar con el referido animus nocendi o intención de perjudicar, no obstante, vulneren los deberes de conducta diligente, no abusiva y razonable que cabe exigir a las partes en relación a la determinación y ejecución de sus respectivas obligaciones, deberes implícitos que acompañan a todo ejercicio de una facultad o derecho
  • si en la interpretación de los contratos se originasen dudas que no puedan resolverse aplicando las normas interpretativas legales o de los usos de comercio, si los hubiere, se deberá decidir la cuestión a favor del deudor; Art 59: Si se originaren dudas que no puedan resolverse con arreglo a lo establecido en el artículo 2.º de este Código, se dictará la cuestión a favor del deudor.  Si en el contrato hubiera intervenido agente o corredor, se estará a lo que conste en sus libros. Art 58 Cco Si apareciere divergencia entre los ejemplares de un contrato que presenten los contratantes, y en su celebración hubiere intervenido Agente o Corredor, se estará a lo que resulte de los libros de éstos, siempre que se encuentren arreglados a derecho.
  • han de tenerse también en cuenta las normas que sobre la interpretación de los contratos sometidos a condiciones generales establece la Ley de Condiciones Generales, (ver Blog Prof Cazorla; y II) 

En cuanto a la aplicación del derecho común se recogen algunas pautas de aplicación de los criterios de interpretación de contratos, a partir de jurisprudencia reciente, y a modo  en ningún caso exhaustivo:

  • STS 3638/2016. Sala Civil (citando las SSTS 294/2012, de 18 mayo , y 27/2015 de 29 de enero ):
    • El principio rector de la labor de interpretación del contrato es la averiguación o búsqueda de la voluntad real o efectivamente querida por las partes.
      • Esta búsqueda de la intención común de las partes se proyecta, necesariamente, sobre la totalidad del contrato celebrado, considerado como una unidad lógica y no como una mera suma de cláusulas, de ahí que la INTERPRETACIÓN SISTEMÁTICA (1285 CC) constituya un presupuesto lógico-jurídico de esta labor de interpretación.
      • El SENTIDO LITERAL, como criterio hermenéutico, es el presupuesto inicial, en cuanto que constituye el punto de partida desde el que se atribuye sentido a las declaraciones realizadas, se indaga la concreta intención de los contratantes y se ajusta o delimita el propósito negocial proyectado en el contrato. Cuando los términos son claros y no dejan duda alguna sobre la intención de los contratantes, la interpretación literal no sólo es el punto de partida sino también el de llegada del fenómeno interpretativo, e impide que, con el pretexto de la labor interpretativa, se pueda modificar una declaración que realmente resulta clara y precisa. A ello responde la regla de interpretación contenida en el párrafo primero del art. 1281 CC («si los términos de un contrato son claros y no dejan duda sobre la intención de los contratantes, se estará al sentido literal de sus cláusulas «)
      • Pero, en sentido contrario, la interpretación literal también contribuye a mostrar que el contrato por su falta de claridad, por la existencia de contradicciones o vacíos, o por la propia conducta de los contratantes, contiene disposiciones interpretables, de suerte que la labor de interpretación debe seguir su curso, con los CRITERIOS HERMENÉUTICOS DE DERECHO CIVIL O COMÚN ( 1282 – 1289 CC)
        • 1282 Cci.- Para juzgar de la intención de los contratantes, deberá atenderse principalmente a los actos de éstos, coetáneos y posteriores al contrato.
        • 1283 Cci.- Cualquiera que sea la generalidad de los términos de un contrato, no deberán entenderse comprendidos en él cosas distintas y casos diferentes de aquellos sobre que los interesados se propusieron contratar.
        • 1284 Cci.- Si alguna cláusula de los contratos admitiere diversos sentidos, deberá entenderse en el más adecuado para que produzca efecto
        • 1285 Cci.- Las cláusulas de los contratos deberán interpretarse las unas por las otras, atribuyendo a las dudosas el sentido que resulte del conjunto de todas.
        • 1286 Cci.- Las palabras que puedan tener distintas acepciones serán entendidas en aquella que sea más conforme a la naturaleza y objeto del contrato.
        • 1287 Cci.- El uso o la costumbre del país se tendrán en cuenta para interpretar las ambigüedades de los contratos, supliendo en éstos la omisión de cláusulas que de ordinario suelen establecerse.
        • 1288 Cci.- La interpretación de las cláusulas oscuras de un contrato no deberá favorecer a la parte que hubiese ocasionado la oscuridad.
        • 1289 Cci.- Cuando absolutamente fuere imposible resolver las dudas por las reglas establecidas en los artículos precedentes, si aquéllas recaen sobre circunstancias accidentales del contrato, y éste fuere gratuito, se resolverán en favor de la menor transmisión de derechos e intereses. Si el contrato fuere oneroso, la duda se resolverá en favor de la mayor reciprocidad de intereses. Si las dudas de cuya resolución se trata en este artículo recayesen sobre el objeto principal del contrato, de suerte que no pueda venirse en conocimiento de cuál fue la intención o voluntad de los contratantes, el contrato será nulo.
  • Relatividad de los Contratos.
    • Art 1257 Cci.- Los contratos sólo producen efecto entre las partes que los otorgan y sus herederos; salvo, en cuanto a éstos, en el caso en que los derechos y obligaciones que proceden del contrato no sean transmisibles, o por su naturaleza, o por pacto, o por disposición de la ley. Si el contrato contuviere alguna estipulación en favor de un tercero, éste podrá exigir su cumplimiento, siempre que hubiese hecho saber su aceptación al obligado antes de que haya sido aquélla revocada

Post scriptum:

 

A propósito de los planes de restructuración de actividades entidades de crédito (UE y FSB)

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De nuevo sobre restructuraciones…..

Unión Europea
  • La regulación de restructuraciones de la Directiva 2014/59/UE  implica la elaboración de planes de restructuración  de actividades para la recuperación de entidades y sostenibilidad a largo plazo. En ese plan, no sólo se identifican (y organizan recursos de superación) los problemas críticos que motivan en primera instancia la crisis de la entidad; sino también otras cuestiones que, sin llegar a causarla directamente podrían, de no corregirse, motivar problemas graves en el futuro. El plan ha de incluir además referencias a Sobre estas cuestiones versa el Reglamento Delegado (UE) 2016/1400 de la Comisión, de 10 de mayo de 2016, que completa la Directiva 2014/59/UE del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo en lo que respecta a las normas técnicas de regulación que especifican los elementos mínimos de un plan de reorganización de actividades y el contenido mínimo de los informes sobre el avance en la ejecución del plan.
  • Se toma nota en particular de que la Comisión acepta como referencia para la elaboración de estos planes a las directrices y comunicaciones adoptadas por la Comisión en relación con la evaluación de la conformidad con el marco de ayudas estatales de la Unión relativas a la reestructuración de empresas en crisis en el sector financiero, con arreglo al artículo 107, apartado 3, del Tratad, porque estas Directrices tienen entre sus objetivos contribuir a la viabilidad a largo plazo de las entidades, orientación compartida con los planes de restructuración (incluso si la elaboración del Plan no comportase la gestión o la previsión de ayudas).
Financial Stability Board  / G20

Intellectual Property- Copyrighs & Neighbouring Rights

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The Term  “copyright”, as used internationally was used for the first time in Englland (Queen Ann Statute, 1709)  tan utilizado internacionalmente, proviene del derecho anglosajón. En concreto, el Estatuto de la Reina Ana (1709).

Lesson 4 (1)(2) (3). International Business Law. Intellectual Property. Patents, Trademarks. Notes for IBL

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Industrial and Intellectual Property. International Business Law. NfNJ Lesson 4 (1)

1. Industrial property rights

Industrial property includes patents, trademarks, industrial designs,  geographical indications; etc

1.1 Invention patents

  • Definition 
    • A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention (inventive activity), which is a product or a process that provides, a new product or procedure for doing something (novelty), and offers a new technical solution to a problem (industrial application). To get a patent, technical information about the invention must be disclosed to the public in a patent application.
    • Registering a patent gives the holder the exclusive rights over his or her invention for a limited period, 20 years. Other people cannot make, use, offer for sale, sell or import a product or a process based on the patented invention. The patent holder can give someone else temporary permission to use the invention through a patent license agreement or may sell the patent.  It is not possible to renew a patent after it expires.
  • Rights 
    • The patent owner/ right holder has the exclusive right to prevent or stop others from commercially exploiting the patented invention. In other words, patent protection means that the invention cannot be commercially made, used, distributed, imported or sold by others without the patent owner’s consent
    • Patents are territorial rights. In general, the exclusive rights are only applicable in the country or region in which a patent has been filed and granted, in accordance with the law of that country or region
    • The protection is granted for a limited period, generally 20 years from the filing date of the application
  • Patents protect technical inventions: new products or procedures which involve an inventive step and have industrial application.
  • The maximun duration of the patent is 20 years

 

  • Scope of terrotorial protections
    • NATIONAL: If the inventor needs protection in only one European country,  he or she can register a patent at the national level.
    • EUROPEAN:
      • For a wider protection they can register a European patent with the European Patent Office (EPO). The European Patent  can protect the invention in up to 5 States, members of the «Munich Patent Agreement».
      • A European patent needs to be validated by the national patent office in each country where protection is required.
    • INTERNATIONAL (MEMBERS OF THE PARIS UNION:
      • Protection in various  States, through the Patent Cooperation Treaty, or Treaty of Washington (PCT)
      • The PCT system of «multiple » national registrations was created by the Patent Cooperation Treaty (within the Paris Union, the International Patent Cooperation Union) . The PCT was signed in 1970.
      • The PCT provides a unified procedure for filing patent applications to protect inventions in more that one country of the Paris Union («letter box» system)
      • The patent application filed under the PCT is called an «international application», or PCT application.
  • Priority, iIn accordance with the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (art 4):
      • (1) Any person who has duly filed an application for a patent, or for the registration of a utility model, or of industrial design, or of a trademark, in one of the countries of the Union, or his successor in title, shall enjoy, for the purpose of filing in the other countries, a right of priority during the periods of 1 year for Patents and Utility Models; 6 months for designs and trademarks  (from the date of the filing)
  • More EU Patent Law
  • More International Patent Law

Garexo

1.2 Trademarks and distinctive signs

  • Definition
    • A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises. Trademarks are protected by intellectual property rights
  • Rights
    • a trademark registration will confer an exclusive right to the use of the registered trademark. This implies that the trademark can be exclusively used by its owner, or licensed (temporarily)  to another party for use in return for payment
  • Registration
        • At the national/regional level, trademark protection can be obtained by filing an application for registration with the national/regional trademark office and paying the required fees.
    • International registration. At the international level (Trademark Law Treaty 1994) provides for International registration procedures. There are two options: either country by country applications or using the Madrid System., administered by WIPO (See Madrid «Monitor»  simplified registration system)
    • Trade Marks registration has a duration of 10 years, that can be renewed with no limit

 

See also, for further details and clarifications, entries about trademarks in Spain

(…)

Lesson 4 (2) Intellectual Property. IBL. Notes for non-jurists

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Lesson 4 (2) Intellectual Property.

 UNDER CONSTRUCTION 

 

(Compulsory readings. Supplement to classroom notes and course materials)

I Introduction

Intellectual Property is intangible property resulting from creations. Its owners and holders have specific rights, as established by the Law. Please note the differences:

  • (Propiedad Industrial) industrial property, ie: patents on inventions, designs and models, protected designations of origin;  new varieties of vegetal, etc
  • (Signs), trademarks, registered trademarks, service brands etc
  • (Propiedad intellectual) copyright and related rights, ie: music, literature, paintings, sculptures.
  • Commercial strategies and other immaterial property rights: trade secrets, know-how, confidentiality agreements, or rapid production.

Gijón, Asturias

Intellectual Property rights (IPRs) allow titleholders (inventors, creators, artists, or other rightsholders) – to decide how, when and where their creations are used and/or exploited. Such rights have a negative and a positive manifestation

IP protection varies from one IP right to another. In very general terms we say that:

  • patents allow the holder to stop third parties from making, using or selling the holder’s invention for a certain period (maximum of years (20)
  • trademarks  protect the  «hallmark» (signo distintivo) of protected product/service by preventing other business from the offering, etc  services/products under the same hallmark
  • copyright / neighbouring rights.
    • moral or paternity contents
    • economic content,
  • Other IP
    • Classroom notes
  • Please note: licence / cession

Long term contracts. ¿Hacia unos principios Unidroit de los contratos comerciales internacionales de duración?

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Los Principios (y Comentarios) Unidroit  sobre «Contratos Comerciales Internacionales»  cubren en sus orientaciones lo que podría considerarse como parte general del derecho de contratos. Sobre ese núcleode sus  Principles of International Commercial Contracts, con fuerte inspiración en la United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG),  Unidroit sigue trabajando también para identificar Principios comunes a otros contratos que no responden necesariamente al mismo esquema general. Concretamente continúan los trabajos relacionados con los contratos de duración, analizados actualmente por el Grupo de trabajo de Unidroit para la reforma de los principios Unidroit de Contratos mercantiles(comerciales) internacionales.  El Working Group on Long-Term Contracts, constituido para realizar propuestas de modificaciones a los Principios (versión 2010) y a sus comentarios, se reunió en enero de 2015 – con la participación como observadora de la española y catedrática de Derecho mercantil de la U. Carlos III, la Dra Pilar  Perales (CISG Advisory Council). ha abordado hasta ahora los siguientes aspectos de los «long term contracts»

  • Concepto de contratos (comerciales) de larga duración
  • Terminación por motivos de fuerza
  • Contratos con «términos abiertos»
  • Restitución post contractual de contratos concluidos por tiempo indefinido
  • Acuerdos para la negociación de buena fe
  • Contratos con «términos evolutivos»
  • Acontecimientos inesperados
  • Cooperación entre las partes
  • Obligaciones postcontractuales

Reproducimos algunas de las aportaciones efectuadas en los debates del Grupo de trabajo , a la espera de la próxima actualización de resultados.

  • Sobre la necesaria actualización de los Principios, más allá del modelo de venta (Preámbulo. Comentarios). «The Principles were originally conceived mainly for ordinary exchange contracts such as sales contracts to be performed at one time. In view of the increasing importance of more complex transactions – in particular long-term contracts – the Principles have subsequently been adapted to take into account also the characteristics and needs of these transactions for a definition of the notion of “long-term contract”
  • Sobre la noción de contratos de duración (Art 1.11, Comentarios), The Principles, …, refer to “long-term contracts” as distinguished from ordinary exchange contracts such as sales contracts to be performed at one time. Three elements typically distinguish long-term contracts from ordinary exchange contracts: duration of the contract, an ongoing relationship between the parties, and complexity of the transaction. For the purpose of the Principles, the essential element is the duration of the contract, while …Depending on the context, examples of long-term contracts may include contracts involving commercial agency, distributorship, out-sourcing, franchising, leases (e.g. equipment leases), framework agreements, investment or concession agreements, contracts for professional services, operation and maintenance agreements, supply agreements (e.g. raw materials), construction/civil works contracts, industrial cooperation, contractual joint-ventures, etc

Más:

International Business Law (International Trade Degree-ULE). Lesson 3 (2) . Notes IBL

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Lesson 3 (2).  Unfair competition

Directive 2005/29/EC of 11 May 2005 concerning unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices in the internal market and amending Directives 84/450/EEC, 97/7/EC, 98/27/EC and 2002/65/EC and Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 (Unfair Commercial Practices Directive), defines the commercial practices which are prohibited in the European Union (EU). It thus protects the economic interests of consumers, competitors and markets before, during and after a commercial transaction has taken place.

      • The Directive has been amended by Directive (EU) 2019/2161 of 27 November 2019 on better enforcement and modernisation of Union consumer protection rules, part of the ‘New Deal for Consumers”
  1. The framework for Unfair Competition in the EU, sets out a GENERAL CLAUSE in accordance to which Unfair Commercial Practices are those which:
                    • do not comply with the requirements of professional diligence, and
                    • are likely to materially distort the economic behaviour of the average consumer.

2. It also grants SPECIAL PROTECTION TO SOME POPULATION GROUPS which are especially vulnerable  (because of their age -children, elderly-, credulity,  mental or physical illness, etc.)

3. The Directives also  DEFINE TWO SPECIFIC CATEGORIES OF UNFAIR COMMERCIAL PRACTICES: misleading practices (by action or omission) and aggressive practices.

I- MISLEADING PRACTICES

          1. By action. A practice is misleading if it contains false or untrue information or is likely to deceive the average consumer, even though the information given may be correct, and is likely to cause him to take a transactional decision he would not have taken otherwise. Examples of such actions include false or deceiving information on:
                • the existence or nature of the product;
                • the main characteristics of the product (its availability, benefits, risks, composition, geographical origin, results to be expected from its use, etc.);
                • the extent of the trader’s commitments;
                • the price or the existence of a specific price advantage;
                • the need for a service, or repair.

B.  By omission. Such occur when material information that the average consumer needs to make an informed transactional decision is omitted or provided in an unclear, unintelligible, ambiguous or untimely manner and thereby causes (or might cause) that consumer to take a purchase decision that he or she would not have otherwise taken.To evaluate such «omissions»  the context is taken into account,

II.- AGGRESSIVE COMMERCIAL PRACTICES

On the one hand, and in accordance with this legal EU framework, several elements must be taken into consideration in order to determine whether an aggressive commercial practice occurs:

        • the nature, location and duration of the aggressive practice;
        • the use of threatening or abusive language or behaviour;
        • the exploitation by the trader of any specific circumstance affecting the consumer in order to influence his/her decision;
        • any disproportionate non-contractual conditions imposed on the consumer who wishes to exercise his/her contractual rights (such as to terminate or switch a contract).

On the other hand, a number of practices are directly classified as aggressive because they are included in a «blacklist” within the Directive. Annexe I to the Directive contains a list of 31 commercial practices which should be considered unfair in all circumstances.

  • In Spain, the Directive was transposed by Law 3/91, which has been modified. Please find here the consolidated version on the Spanish Law

International Business Law (International Trade Degree-ULE). Lesson 3 (1-4) . Notes IBL

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Lesson 3 (1-4). State Aid

State aid is an advantage in any form whatsoever conferred on a selective basis to undertakings/business by national public authorities. Thus, this excludes subsidies granted to individuals or general measures open to all enterprises (for example, taxation measures or employment legislation applicable to all business).

Features of State Aid:

  • intervention by the State or through State resources which can take a variety of forms (e.g. grants, interest and tax reliefs, guarantees, government holdings of all or part of a company, or providing goods and services on preferential terms, etc.);
  • it  gives the recipient an advantage on a selective basis, for example to specific companies or industry sectors, or to companies located in specific regions
  • competition has been or may be distorted;
  • the intervention is likely to affect trade between the Member States.

Despite the prohibition, some State Aid is compatible or maybe admissible in accordance with the Treaties (TFUE) and in accordance with secondary legislation (in particular Regulations,Decisions).

A) TREATIES (Treaty on the Functioning of the EU)

  • Automatic compatibility: 107, paragraph 2 allows for compatibility with the internal market (as it has been repeatedly declared by the case-law of the TJUE) of:
    • State Aid of a social nature granted to individual consumers provided that it is granted without discrimination as to the origin of the products;
    • State Aid to make good the damage caused by natural disasters or exceptional occurrences;
    • State Aid to promote the economic development of areas where the standard of living is abnormally low or where there is serious unemployment;
  • Compatible if declared by the EU Commission. Article 107, paragraph 3 adds that some other types of State Aid may be considered compatible with the internal market (following a procedure of application to the Commission as explained hereinafter). :
    • State Aid to implement an important project of common European interest,
    • State Aid to facilitate the development of certain economic activities or of certain economic areas, where such aid does not adversely affect trading conditions and competition in the Community to an extent contrary to the common interest
    • State Aid to promote culture and heritage conservation where such aid does not adversely affect trading conditions and competition in the Community to an extent contrary to the common interest

B) SECONDARY LEGISLATION.

B.1 Under various EU exiting Regulations, State Aid  «EXCEPTIONS BY CATEGORIES» has been allowed in areas such as

  • Aid for training
  • De minimis aid
  • Aid for small and medium-sized enterprises

The procedure for exemptions by categories include Council Regulations that declare some categories exempted; and Commission Regulations developing the categories of State aid that the Council has already determined may be exempted

B.2 Under Commission Regulation 800/2008 a wide number of categories of aid were declared compatible. It consolidated previous Regulations and added categories of permitted State aid which, being included in it, are not subject to the obligation of prior notification to the Commission. 

This Regulation exempts aids (in the simplified procedure that it introduced) are related to:

  • Investment and employment aid for SMEs
  • Aid for business start-ups by women entrepreneurs
  • Environmental aid
  • Aid in favour of consultancy for SMEs and their participation in trade fairs
  • Aid in the form of risk capital
  • Aid for research, development and innovation
  • Aid for training
  • Aid for disadvantaged or disabled workers

In order to be exempted from the notification requirement, the State resolutions granting aid must always refer to R 800/2008, comply with the maximum aid intensities laid down in that Regulation for each category, and subsidise only the «eligible» costs in the Regulation. In addition, such aid must have an «incentive» effect, i.e. serve as an incentive to develop certain activities or projects.

The 2013 revision of the State aid Procedural Regulation introduced the possibility of conducting State aid sector inquiries by the EU Commission, (before it was only possible as part of Antitrust and Merger control). State aid sector inquiries can be launched when State aid measures may distort competition in more than one  Member States, or where existing aid measures are no longer compatible with the regulatory framework.

(C) INDIVIDUAL EXCEPTION TO THE GENERAL PROHIBITION OF STATE AID. States wishing to grant State aid which is not among those declared compatible by the Treaties or by Regulation can issue an application to the EU Commission. On application by a Member State, the Council may act unanimously, decide that aid which that State is granting or intends to grant shall be considered to be compatible with the internal market

SUPERVISION AND CONTROL OF STATE AIDS. 

  • Articles 108 and 109 establish that the Commission shall, in cooperation with the Member States, keep under constant review all systems of aid existing in those States, and the Commission shall propose to the MS appropriate measures.
  • The EU Commission has strong investigative and decision-making powers. Central to it is the notification procedure which MS have to follow:
    • The Commission shall be informed, in sufficient time to enable it to submit its comments, of any plans to grant or alter aid.
    • The Member State concerned shall not put its proposed measures into effect until this procedure has resulted in a final decision. However, if State Aid is granted and the Commission finds that aid already granted by a State or through State resources is not compatible with the internal market or that such aid is being misused, it shall decide that the State concerned shall abolish or alter such aid within a period of time to be determined by the Commission.
    • If the State concerned does not comply in time, the Commission or any other interested State may refer the matter to the Court of Justice of the European Union direct. (CJEU)/TJUE.

 

Competition Law and Unfair Competition Law (EU). Antitrust. Notes for IBL

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Lesson 3 (I). IBL. Free Competition Law. Antitrust, with special attention to its regulation in the EU (1.1  and 1.2 )

Foreword on Free competition (in the EU)

European competition policy is intended to ensure free and fair competition in the European Union. EU rules on competition (Articles 101 to 109 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union – TFEU) are based on some main principles:

  1. (a and b) prohibition of concerted practices and other agreements and of abuse of a dominant position capable to affect competition within the common market (antitrust rules);
  2. preventive supervision of mergers with a European dimension (i.e. to ensure that the significant size of the proposed merged operation in the EU market would not result in restrict competition, with the prohibition of some mergers;
  3. supervision of aid granted by EU countries which threaten to distort competition by favouring certain undertakings or the production of certain goods;
    • Also, but beyond this Course
      • the liberalisation of sectors previously controlled by public monopolies, such as telecommunications, transport or energy
      • cooperation with competition authorities outside the EU.

The European Commission and the national competition authorities enforce EU competition rules. The cooperate among themselves within the European Competition Network (ECN), ensures effective and consistent application of the rules.

Find the Dodo in this window…!

1. 1 . Antitrust (illicit agreements/decisions/concerted practices and  abuse of dominant position)
  • Free Competition benefits the market in so far as it encourages the offer of products and services at the most favourable terms for of the participants in that market, as well as the access to products and services under non-discriminatory terms and conditions. To be effective, it requires companies to act independently of each other, and within a market where competitive pressures are exerted by its agents (producers, distributors, financiers, etc) operating in a level playing field. European antitrust policy is based in two central rules in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Unión (Art 101 and Art 102 TFUE); as well as in secondary legislation (mainly Regulation (EU) 1/2003). The main Spanish Law in this area is  Ley de Defensa de la Competencia, Ley 15/2007, here

The Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU) prohibits antitrust (anti-competitive) behaviour, in the form of agreements, decisions and concerted practices which restrict competition (Article 101), and abuse of dominant positions (Article 102):

  • Article 101 of the TFEU prohibits agreements, decisions and concerted practices between two or more independent market operators which restrict competition. This provision covers both horizontal agreements / decisions /practices (between actual or potential competitors operating at the same level of the supply chain) and vertical agreements (between firms operating at different levels, i.e. agreement between a manufacturer and its distributor).
    • One of the clearest cases of illegal conduct infringing Article 101 is the creation of a «cartel» between competitors, which may involve price-fixing and/or market sharing behaviours, etc.. A cartel is a group (horizontal or vertical) of similar and independent companies which join together to fix prices, to limit production or to share markets or customers between them, or to engage in similar practices.
      • Please note that agreements/decisions/concerted practices may be horizontal (between competitors at the same level of the supply chain fixing prices or limiting production) or vertical (such as between a manufacturer and a distributor).
    • Under Article 101(3) of the TFEU, these prohibited behaviours may be permitted, as an exception, if they generate more positive than negative effects (if they improve production or product distribution, or they promote technical or economic progress, for example), and at the same time:
        1. they allow that some of their benefits reach the consumers
        2. they do not eliminate completely all competition in relation to the products or services affected.
        3. They do not impose on the companies that are a part of the agreement, restrictions which are not indispensable to achieve the positive objectives of the agreement
    • Limited exceptions to Antitrust rules are also provided for by Regulation (Reglamentos).
    • The exemptions can be declared in relation with any agreement or category of agreements between undertakings, or any decision or category of decisions by associations of undertakings, or any concerted practice or category of concerted practices. Please visit the European Commission site on Decisions on Exemptions
1 2 Antitrust (Abuse of dominant position)
  • Article 102 of the Treaty prohibits that companies, undertakings or firms that hold a dominant position on a market, abuse such position. Ie, by charging unfair prices, by limiting production, by refusing to innovate to the prejudice of consumers. The main rules on procedures to implement this article (secondary EU Law) are set out in Council Regulation (EC) 1/2003.

 

COMMON PROCEDURES ON ANTITRUST CONTROL (1.1 and 1.2)
    • The Commission may impose large fines on firms for such illegal business practices. Since 2004, national competition authorities can enforce EU antitrust rules on agreements/decisions/practices  (and on dominance abuse) in the same way as the Commission.
    • LENIENCY AGREEMENTS. There are special situations where leniency agreements can be reached between infractors and Competition authorities to minimize the consequences of their infringements: Many cartels are found out as the European Commission successfully carries out its own investigations to detect them. But other cartels have been detected by the European Commission after one of its members confessed and asked for leniency,  Leniency programmes (programas de clemencia) allow for the reduction of penalties.
    • SETTLEMENTS. Also, undertakings can settle their case by acknowledging their involvement in the cartel under investigation,  and thus, getting a smaller fine in return. (See Commission Regulation (EC) No 622/2008 of 30 June 2008 amending Regulation (EC) No 773/2004, as regards the conduct of settlement procedures in cartel cases  and  EU Commission Decisions pursuant to Article 7 and Article 23 of Council Regulation (EC) 1/2003 in cartel cases)

Authorities that supervise and control Antitrust Law  

  • The EU Commission is empowered by the Treaty to apply antitrust and it has investigative powers (a.e. inspection at business and non-business premises, written requests for information, etc.). The Commission may also impose fines on those undertakings which violate the EU antitrust rules.
  • European Court of Justice is competent in Antitrust EU cases
  • National Competition Authorities (NCAs) such as in Spain the CNMC (Comisión Nacional de Mercados y Competencia) are empowered to apply Articles 101 and 102 of the Treaty fully, to ensure that competition is not distorted or restricted.
  • National courts may apply EU and National provisions to protect the individual rights conferred on citizens by the Treaty.
  • Please note: Competition law does not only involve administrative sanctions. It also involves actions for damages before national courts (both stand alone actions and follow up actions).

EU competition laws must be applied coherently throughout the EU.

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Marca de la Unión Europea.Directrices de Oficina de Propiedad Intelectual de la Unión Europea (EUIPO)

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Con motivo de la entrada en vigor, del Reglamento nº 2015/2424 por el que se modifica el Reglamento sobre la marca comunitaria,el 23 de marzo de 2016  la OAMI ha pasado a denominarse Oficina de Propiedad Intelectual de la Unión Europea (EUIPO) y la marca comunitaria marca de la Unión Europea.

 

Dábamos noticia de la reforma aquí.IMG_20151208_133411396[1]

Un día después de la publicación del mencionado Reglamento (UE) es decir, el 24.03.2016, la EUIPO ha hecho públicas una serie de Directrices que constituyen el punto de referencia principal -explicada- del sistema de marcas de la Unión Europea. Estas Directrices no constituyen textos legislativos, pero fueron objeto de aprobación por parte del Director de la Oficina de Marcas de la UE  el 10.03.2016, y  resultan de utilidad para conocer los principales «escenarios» procedimentales que se desarrollan ante la EUIPO, particularmente a raíz de la reforma. Inicialmente fueron publicadas en español, alemán, inglés, francés e italiano y se esperan próximamente otras versiones lingüísticas.

Estas Directrices afectan a:

Fondos de inversión a largo plazo. Estándares técnicos e informe ESMA (AEVM)

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La Autoridad de Valores y Mercados Europea ha publicado su informe final Final Report y un borrador de Estándares técnicos previstos en el Reglamento (UE) 2015/760, el Reglamento de Fondos de Inversión a Largo Plazo

El Reglamento 2015/760 permite a los inversores invertir en sociedades y en proyectos de infraestructura con objetivos largoplacista para incrementar la financiación extrabancaria disponible para las empresas que inviertan en la economía real europea. Los fondos de inversión a largo plazo son un tipo de Fondos Alternativos que deben ser gestionados por un Gestor de Fondos Alternativos en las condiciones de la Directiva de Fondos Alternativos. Con los requisitos adicionales que se les exigen estos gestores tendrán acceso a inversores de toda la UE, incluyendo los minoristas, respecto de los que se plantean condiciones y garantías específicas.

IMG_20150905_171528262_HDR

Pese a que siguen postpuestos los estándares técnicos sobre los costes de información que deben incluirse en el folleto de estos fondos de largo plazo, entre las propuestas de ESMA que han avanzado encontramos sus Criterios para determinar las circunstancias en las que los derivados financieros se utilizan únicamente para limitar riesgos,(basados en  el documento  ‘CESR guidelines on Risk Measurement and the Calculation of Global Exposure and Counterparty Risk for UCITS on risk measurements’)

  • El periodo de vida del fondo de largo plazo se determina con referencia al activo concreto dentro de la cartera del fondo que tiene un horizonte más largo. Se establece un año de adaptación de los fondos a partir de la entrada en vigor los estándares técnicos.

Dábamos noticia del Reglamento 2015/760, aquí.